Contents
Instruments and Experimental Techniques


Vol. 44, No. 6, 2001

Simultaneous English language translation of the journal is available from MAIK “Nauka / Interperiodica” (Russia).
Distributed worldwide by Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers. Instruments and Experimental Techniques ISSN 0020-4412.


Personalia p. 719

REVIEWS p. 719

1. PARTICLE ACCELERATORS p. 721

1.1. Electron accelerators p. 721

1.2. Proton accelerators p. 721

1.3. Structural elements of accelerators p. 722

1.3.1. Electrode systems p. 722

1.3.2. Magnetic systems, magnetic-field monitoring p. 722

1.3.3. Supplies p. 722

1.4. Beam diagnosis p. 723

1.5. Neutron beams and generators p. 723

1.6. Targets p. 724

2. PARTICLE SPECTROMETRY p. 725

2.1. Techniques of nuclear spectrometry p. 725

2.1.1. Fission-product spectroscopy p. 727

2.1.2. Spectroscopy of positronium and nuclear radiations p. 727

2.1.3. Mössbauer spectroscopy p. 728

2.2. High-energy-particle spectrometers p. 729

2.2.1. Total-absorption spectrometers, calorimeters p. 729

2.2.1.1. Electromagnetic calorimeters p. 730

2.2.1.2. Hadronic calorimeters p. 731

2.2.2. Magnetic spectrometers p. 732

2.3. Neutron spectrometry p. 732

2.4. Cosmic-radiation spectrometers, gamma telescopes p. 733

3. PARTICLE DETECTORS p. 734

3.1. Track chambers p. 734

3.1.1. Bubble chambers p. 734

3.1.2. Spark, streamer chambers p. 734

3.1.3. Photographic emulsions, solid-state and thin-film detectors p. 735

3.2. Ionization detectors p. 736

3.2.1. Ionization chambers p. 736

3.2.2. Proportional chambers p. 736

3.2.3. Proportional counters p. 737

3.2.4. Drift and time-projection chambers p. 737

3.3. Semiconductor detectors p. 738

3.4. Luminescent detectors p. 739

3.4.1. Scintillation detectors p. 739

3.4.1.1. Inorganic scintillators p. 739

3.4.1.2. CsI detectors p. 740

3.4.1.3. Organic scintillators p. 741

3.4.1.4. Radiation resistance of organic scintillators p. 742

3.4.1.5. Light collection p. 743

3.4.1.6. General aspects of scintillation techniques p. 743

3.4.2. Cerenkov detectors p. 745

3.5. Vacuum detectors p. 746

3.6. Neutron detectors p. 746

3.7. Dosimeters, radiometers p. 746

3.8. Position-sensitive detectors p. 746

3.9. Hodoscopes p. 747

3.10. Study of detector characteristics p. 747

4. EXPERIMENT AUTOMATION p. 748

4.1. Data-acquisition systems p. 748

4.2. Automated measuring systems p. 749

4.3. Monitoring and control systems p. 750

4.3.1. Modular systems p. 750

4.3.2. Controllers p. 751

4.4. Interfaces p. 751

4.5. Data transmission, communication lines p. 751

4.6. Computer input of signals p. 751

4.7. Application of IBM PC in experiments p. 752

4.8. Computer processing of experimental data p. 752

4.8.1. Computer methods for an increase in the resolution p. 752

4.8.2. TV signal processing p. 753

4.9. Numerical simulation p. 753

5. RADIO-ELECTRONIC APPARATUS FOR NUCLEAR RESEARCH p. 753

5.1. Circuits for photomultipliers, particle detectors, chambers p. 754

5.2. Spectrometer channels p. 754

5.2.1. Spectrometer amplifiers and shapers p. 754

5.2.2. Charge converters p. 754

5.3. Discriminators and selectors p. 755

5.3.1. Amplitude discriminators p. 755

5.3.2. Time discriminators p. 755

5.4. Analyzers and spectrometers p. 755

5.5. Event-sampling circuits p. 756

6. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS p. 757

6.1. Conversion of electric signals p. 757

6.1.1. Analog-to-digital converters p. 757

6.1.2. Digital recorders of signal waveforms p. 757

6.2. Measurement of electric signals p. 758

6.2.1. Measurement of parameters of electronic components p. 758

6.2.2. Current and voltage measurement p. 759

6.2.3. Synchronous and stroboscopic devices p. 759

6.3. Time, frequency, and phase measurement p. 759

6.3.1. Time measurement p. 759

6.3.2. Time-to-digital converters p. 760

6.3.3. Frequency measurement p. 760

6.3.4. Phase measurement and phase shifters p. 760

6.3.5. Frequency multipliers and dividers p. 760

7. RADIOENGINEERING DEVICES p. 761

7.1. Generators p. 761

7.1.1. Function generators p. 761

7.1.2. Signal synthesizers p. 761

7.2. Amplifiers p. 762

7.2.1. Low-noise amplifiers and followers p. 762

7.2.2. Direct-current amplifiers p. 762

7.2.3. Wideband and pulse amplifiers p. 762

7.2.4. High-power and high-voltage amplifiers p. 762

7.3. Spectrum analyzers and correlometers p. 763

7.4. Power supplies and regulators p. 763

7.4.1. Pulse controllers p. 763

7.4.2. High-voltage power supplies p. 763

7.4.3. Electromagnet power supplies p. 764

7.4.4. Light-source supply circuits p. 764

8. PULSE TECHNIQUES p. 764

8.1. Pulse devices p. 764

8.1.1. Electronic switches and commutators p. 764

8.1.2. Pulse current and voltage measurements p. 765

8.2. Pulse generators p. 765

8.2.1. Short-pulse generators p. 765

8.3. Pulse shapers p. 766

8.4. High-power pulse generators p. 766

8.4.1. Magnetic and thyristor generators p. 767

8.4.2. Generators with semiconducting shapers p. 767

8.4.3. High-voltage pulse generators p. 768

8.4.4. Energy-storage devices p. 769

8.4.5. Components of high-power pulse devices p. 769

8.4.6. High-power switches and commutators p. 769

8.4.7. Discharge gaps p. 770

9. MICROWAVE TECHNIQUES AND RADIO SPECTROSCOPY p. 771

9.1. Microwave generators, amplifiers, multipliers p. 771

9.1.1. Microwave pulse generators p. 772

9.2. Microwave detectors p. 772

9.2.1. Microwave pulse measurements p. 773

9.2.2. Radiometers p. 773

9.3. Resonators, delay lines p. 774

9.3.1. Attenuators p. 774

9.4. Millimeter- and submillimeter-band techniques p. 774

9.5. Microwave measurements of parameters of materials p. 775

9.6. Radio spectroscopy p. 775

9.6.1. EPR spectroscopy p. 776

9.6.2. NMR spectroscopy p. 776

9.6.3. NQR spectroscopy p. 777

9.7. Antennas p. 777

10. PHOTOELECTRON AND ELECTRON CONVERTERS p. 778

10.1. Photocells and photomultipliers p. 778

10.1.1. Study of photomultipliers p. 778

10.1.2. Production, control, and power supply of photomultipliers p. 779

10.2. Image converters p. 779

10.3. Electron multipliers p. 779

10.3.1. Breakdown strength of microchannel plates p. 780

11. CORPUSCULAR BEAMS p. 780

11.1. Molecular and atomic beams p. 780

11.1.1. Investigation of parameters p. 781

11.2. Ion beams p. 781

11.2.1. Ion probes p. 781

11.2.2. Ion-beam generation p. 782

11.2.3. Gas ion beams p. 782

11.2.4. Ion-beam diagnostics p. 783

11.3. Electron beams p. 783

11.3.1. Electron-beam generation p. 784

11.3.2. Cathodes p. 784

11.3.3. Electron-beam diagnostics p. 785

11.4. Analytical instruments with electron beams p. 785

11.5. Electron accelerators p. 786

12. PLASMA AND PLASMA DEVICES p. 787

12.1. Plasma excitation p. 788

12.2. Plasma diagnostics p. 788

12.2.1. Probes p. 789

12.3. Laser and thermonuclear plasma p. 789

12.3.1. Injectors of microparticles p. 790

12.4. Electrical discharge p. 790

12.5. Plasma technological apparatuses p. 791

13. MASS SPECTROMETRY p. 791

13.1. Mass analysis p. 791

13.2. Gas and plasma analysis p. 792

13.3. Time-of-flight and atomic-fluorescence mass spectrometers p. 792

13.4. Mass filters p. 793

13.5. Modernization of mass spectrometers, attachments, modes p. 793

13.6. Ion sources for mass spectrometers p. 793

13.7. Electronics of mass spectrometers p. 793

14. OPTICS p. 794

14.1. Light sources p. 794

14.2. Lasers p. 794

14.2.1. Gas lasers p. 794

14.2.2. COn lasers p. 794

14.2.3. Lasers on vapors of solids p. 795

14.2.4. Excimer lasers p. 795

14.2.5. Solid-state lasers p. 795

14.2.6. Dye lasers p. 796

14.2.7. Pumping of lasers p. 796

14.2.8. Measurement of laser parameters p. 797

14.2.9. Control of radiation parameters p. 798

14.2.9.1. Frequency control p. 798

14.2.9.2. Emission-power control p. 799

14.3. Light detectors p. 799

14.3.1. Thermal photodetectors, infrared detectors, radiometers p. 799

14.3.2. Detectors with spatial resolution p. 800

14.3.3. Measurement of photodetector parameters p. 800

14.3.4. Photon counting, photometers p. 801

14.4. Optical instruments p. 801

14.4.1. Instruments using lasers p. 802

14.4.2. Holography p. 802

14.4.3. Luminous-flux-control devices p. 802

14.4.4. Measurement of optical properties p. 803

14.4.5. Parts of optical instruments p. 803

14.4.6. Fiber optics p. 804

14.5. Optical spectral instruments p. 805

14.5.1. Interferometers p. 805

14.5.2. Spectrometers p. 805

14.5.3. Fourier spectrometers p. 806

14.5.4. Attachments to spectral instruments p. 806

15. ASTRONOMY AND COSMOS p. 806

15.1. Instruments for spacecrafts p. 807

16. ECOLOGY, MEDICINE, BIOLOGY p. 808

16.1. Radiation measurements p. 808

16.1.1. Dosimetry and radiation monitoring p. 808

16.1.2. Identification of radioactive elements p. 809

16.1.3. -ray measurements p. 810

16.2. Monitoring of atmosphere p. 810

16.3. Geophysical measurements p. 811

16.3.1. Soil and rock measurements p. 811

16.3.2. Water p. 812

16.3.3. Geomagnetic measurements p. 812

16.4. Monitoring of technological processes p. 812

16.5. Instruments for medicine p. 813

16.5.1. Diagnostics p. 813

16.5.2. Therapy p. 814

16.6. Biological measurements p. 814

17. MAGNETIC DEVICES p. 815

17.1. Magnets and electromagnets p. 815

17.1.1. Superconducting magnets p. 816

17.1.2. Superconducting screens p. 816

17.2. Magnetometers p. 816

17.2.1. Resonance magnetometers p. 817

17.2.2. Superconducting magnetometers p. 817

17.2.3. Hall sensors and galvanomagnetic sensors p. 817

17.3. Magnetic measurements p. 818

17.3.1. Magnetooptics p. 819

18. MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS p. 819

18.1. Instruments for study of mechanical properties p. 819

18.2. Acoustic methods p. 820

18.3. Piezoelectric devices p. 821

18.4. High pressures p. 822

18.4.1. High-pressure chambers p. 822

18.4.2. Measurements at high pressures p. 823

18.5. Dilatometers, profilometers, displacement meters, velocimeters, and rotation meters p. 823

18.6. Displacement devices, supports, weights p. 824

19. STUDY OF MATERIALS p. 824

19.1. Measurement of kinetic coefficients, calorimetry p. 825

19.2. X-ray diffraction p. 826

19.2.1. X-ray apparatuses p. 826

19.2.2. X-ray sources p. 826

19.2.3. X-ray detectors p. 827

19.2.4. Formation of X-ray beams p. 828

19.2.5. Methods of X-ray analysis p. 828

19.2.6. Attachments for X-ray studies p. 829

19.3. Measurements of dielectric characteristics and fields in dielectrics p. 829

19.4. Superconductors p. 830

19.5. Semiconductors and semiconductor structures p. 830

19.5.1. Fabrication technology and quality control p. 830

19.5.2. Study of properties of semiconductors and semiconductor structures p. 831

19.5.3. Conduction measurements p. 832

19.5.4. Capacitance methods p. 832

19.5.5. Study of opto- and thermoelectric phenomena in semiconductors p. 832

19.5.6. Charge-coupled devices p. 833

20. INVESTIGATION OF SURFACES p. 833

20.1. Composition and state diagnostics p. 833

20.2. Work function, electron emission p. 834

20.3. Liquid on a surface p. 835

20.4. Scanning probe microscopy p. 835

21. THERMAL AND CRYOGENIC INSTRUMENTS p. 836

21.1. Thermal instruments p. 836

21.1.1. Calorimeters p. 837

21.1.2. Heaters p. 837

21.1.3. Temperature controllers and regulators p. 838

21.1.4. Thermoelectric instruments p. 838

21.1.5. Thermometry p. 838

21.2. Cryogenic techniques p. 839

21.2.1. Cryogenic devices p. 839

21.2.2. Measurements at low temperatures p. 840

21.2.3. Measurement of low temperatures p. 841

21.2.4. Cryostats p. 841

21.2.5. Monitoring of cryogenic-liquid level p. 841

21.2.6. Superconducting devices p. 842

21.2.7. Components of cryogenic devices p. 842

22. VACUUM TECHNIQUES p. 842

22.1. Vacuum devices p. 842

22.1.1. Vacuum spark gaps p. 843

22.2. Vacuum production p. 843

22.3. Vacuum gauges p. 843

22.4. Components of vacuum devices p. 843

23. LABORATORY TECHNIQUES p. 844

23.1. Techniques for working with gases p. 844

23.1.1. Gas purification and composition analysis p. 845

23.1.2. Measurement of pressure p. 846

23.1.3. Gas flow investigations p. 846

23.1.4. Flowmeters p. 847

23.1.5. Impulse gas flows p. 847

23.2. Techniques for working with liquids p. 847

23.2.1. Measurements of parameters p. 848

23.2.2. Liquid flow p. 848

23.3. Single crystals p. 849

23.4. Thin layers p. 849

23.4.1. Vacuum evaporation p. 849

23.4.2. Ion and plasma deposition p. 850

23.4.3. Thin-layer thickness control p. 851

23.4.4. Technological apparatuses for thin-film deposition p. 851

23.5. Finely dispersed systems p. 852

23.6. Foils, tips, holes p. 852

23.7. Technological facilities p. 853

23.8. Conductometry p. 853


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