-ray
measurements p. 810
Contents
Instruments and Experimental Techniques
Vol. 44, No. 6, 2001
Simultaneous English language translation of the journal is available from MAIK “Nauka / Interperiodica” (Russia).
Distributed worldwide by Kluwer Academic / Plenum Publishers. Instruments and Experimental Techniques ISSN 0020-4412.
Personalia p. 719
REVIEWS p. 719
1. PARTICLE ACCELERATORS p. 721
1.1. Electron accelerators p. 721
1.2. Proton accelerators p. 721
1.3. Structural elements of accelerators p. 722
1.3.1. Electrode systems p. 722
1.3.2. Magnetic systems, magnetic-field monitoring p. 722
1.3.3. Supplies p. 722
1.4. Beam diagnosis p. 723
1.5. Neutron beams and generators p. 723
1.6. Targets p. 724
2. PARTICLE SPECTROMETRY p. 725
2.1. Techniques of nuclear spectrometry p. 725
2.1.1. Fission-product spectroscopy p. 727
2.1.2. Spectroscopy of positronium and nuclear radiations p. 727
2.1.3. Mössbauer spectroscopy p. 728
2.2. High-energy-particle spectrometers p. 729
2.2.1. Total-absorption spectrometers, calorimeters p. 729
2.2.1.1. Electromagnetic calorimeters p. 730
2.2.1.2. Hadronic calorimeters p. 731
2.2.2. Magnetic spectrometers p. 732
2.3. Neutron spectrometry p. 732
2.4. Cosmic-radiation spectrometers, gamma telescopes p. 733
3. PARTICLE DETECTORS p. 734
3.1. Track chambers p. 734
3.1.1. Bubble chambers p. 734
3.1.2. Spark, streamer chambers p. 734
3.1.3. Photographic emulsions, solid-state and thin-film detectors p. 735
3.2. Ionization detectors p. 736
3.2.1. Ionization chambers p. 736
3.2.2. Proportional chambers p. 736
3.2.3. Proportional counters p. 737
3.2.4. Drift and time-projection chambers p. 737
3.3. Semiconductor detectors p. 738
3.4. Luminescent detectors p. 739
3.4.1. Scintillation detectors p. 739
3.4.1.1. Inorganic scintillators p. 739
3.4.1.2. CsI detectors p. 740
3.4.1.3. Organic scintillators p. 741
3.4.1.4. Radiation resistance of organic scintillators p. 742
3.4.1.5. Light collection p. 743
3.4.1.6. General aspects of scintillation techniques p. 743
3.4.2. Cerenkov detectors p. 745
3.5. Vacuum detectors p. 746
3.6. Neutron detectors p. 746
3.7. Dosimeters, radiometers p. 746
3.8. Position-sensitive detectors p. 746
3.9. Hodoscopes p. 747
3.10. Study of detector characteristics p. 747
4. EXPERIMENT AUTOMATION p. 748
4.1. Data-acquisition systems p. 748
4.2. Automated measuring systems p. 749
4.3. Monitoring and control systems p. 750
4.3.1. Modular systems p. 750
4.3.2. Controllers p. 751
4.4. Interfaces p. 751
4.5. Data transmission, communication lines p. 751
4.6. Computer input of signals p. 751
4.7. Application of IBM PC in experiments p. 752
4.8. Computer processing of experimental data p. 752
4.8.1. Computer methods for an increase in the resolution p. 752
4.8.2. TV signal processing p. 753
4.9. Numerical simulation p. 753
5. RADIO-ELECTRONIC APPARATUS FOR NUCLEAR RESEARCH p. 753
5.1. Circuits for photomultipliers, particle detectors, chambers p. 754
5.2. Spectrometer channels p. 754
5.2.1. Spectrometer amplifiers and shapers p. 754
5.2.2. Charge converters p. 754
5.3. Discriminators and selectors p. 755
5.3.1. Amplitude discriminators p. 755
5.3.2. Time discriminators p. 755
5.4. Analyzers and spectrometers p. 755
5.5. Event-sampling circuits p. 756
6. ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS p. 757
6.1. Conversion of electric signals p. 757
6.1.1. Analog-to-digital converters p. 757
6.1.2. Digital recorders of signal waveforms p. 757
6.2. Measurement of electric signals p. 758
6.2.1. Measurement of parameters of electronic components p. 758
6.2.2. Current and voltage measurement p. 759
6.2.3. Synchronous and stroboscopic devices p. 759
6.3. Time, frequency, and phase measurement p. 759
6.3.1. Time measurement p. 759
6.3.2. Time-to-digital converters p. 760
6.3.3. Frequency measurement p. 760
6.3.4. Phase measurement and phase shifters p. 760
6.3.5. Frequency multipliers and dividers p. 760
7. RADIOENGINEERING DEVICES p. 761
7.1. Generators p. 761
7.1.1. Function generators p. 761
7.1.2. Signal synthesizers p. 761
7.2. Amplifiers p. 762
7.2.1. Low-noise amplifiers and followers p. 762
7.2.2. Direct-current amplifiers p. 762
7.2.3. Wideband and pulse amplifiers p. 762
7.2.4. High-power and high-voltage amplifiers p. 762
7.3. Spectrum analyzers and correlometers p. 763
7.4. Power supplies and regulators p. 763
7.4.1. Pulse controllers p. 763
7.4.2. High-voltage power supplies p. 763
7.4.3. Electromagnet power supplies p. 764
7.4.4. Light-source supply circuits p. 764
8. PULSE TECHNIQUES p. 764
8.1. Pulse devices p. 764
8.1.1. Electronic switches and commutators p. 764
8.1.2. Pulse current and voltage measurements p. 765
8.2. Pulse generators p. 765
8.2.1. Short-pulse generators p. 765
8.3. Pulse shapers p. 766
8.4. High-power pulse generators p. 766
8.4.1. Magnetic and thyristor generators p. 767
8.4.2. Generators with semiconducting shapers p. 767
8.4.3. High-voltage pulse generators p. 768
8.4.4. Energy-storage devices p. 769
8.4.5. Components of high-power pulse devices p. 769
8.4.6. High-power switches and commutators p. 769
8.4.7. Discharge gaps p. 770
9. MICROWAVE TECHNIQUES AND RADIO SPECTROSCOPY p. 771
9.1. Microwave generators, amplifiers, multipliers p. 771
9.1.1. Microwave pulse generators p. 772
9.2. Microwave detectors p. 772
9.2.1. Microwave pulse measurements p. 773
9.2.2. Radiometers p. 773
9.3. Resonators, delay lines p. 774
9.3.1. Attenuators p. 774
9.4. Millimeter- and submillimeter-band techniques p. 774
9.5. Microwave measurements of parameters of materials p. 775
9.6. Radio spectroscopy p. 775
9.6.1. EPR spectroscopy p. 776
9.6.2. NMR spectroscopy p. 776
9.6.3. NQR spectroscopy p. 777
9.7. Antennas p. 777
10. PHOTOELECTRON AND ELECTRON CONVERTERS p. 778
10.1. Photocells and photomultipliers p. 778
10.1.1. Study of photomultipliers p. 778
10.1.2. Production, control, and power supply of photomultipliers p. 779
10.2. Image converters p. 779
10.3. Electron multipliers p. 779
10.3.1. Breakdown strength of microchannel plates p. 780
11. CORPUSCULAR BEAMS p. 780
11.1. Molecular and atomic beams p. 780
11.1.1. Investigation of parameters p. 781
11.2. Ion beams p. 781
11.2.1. Ion probes p. 781
11.2.2. Ion-beam generation p. 782
11.2.3. Gas ion beams p. 782
11.2.4. Ion-beam diagnostics p. 783
11.3. Electron beams p. 783
11.3.1. Electron-beam generation p. 784
11.3.2. Cathodes p. 784
11.3.3. Electron-beam diagnostics p. 785
11.4. Analytical instruments with electron beams p. 785
11.5. Electron accelerators p. 786
12. PLASMA AND PLASMA DEVICES p. 787
12.1. Plasma excitation p. 788
12.2. Plasma diagnostics p. 788
12.2.1. Probes p. 789
12.3. Laser and thermonuclear plasma p. 789
12.3.1. Injectors of microparticles p. 790
12.4. Electrical discharge p. 790
12.5. Plasma technological apparatuses p. 791
13. MASS SPECTROMETRY p. 791
13.1. Mass analysis p. 791
13.2. Gas and plasma analysis p. 792
13.3. Time-of-flight and atomic-fluorescence mass spectrometers p. 792
13.4. Mass filters p. 793
13.5. Modernization of mass spectrometers, attachments, modes p. 793
13.6. Ion sources for mass spectrometers p. 793
13.7. Electronics of mass spectrometers p. 793
14. OPTICS p. 794
14.1. Light sources p. 794
14.2. Lasers p. 794
14.2.1. Gas lasers p. 794
14.2.2. COn lasers p. 794
14.2.3. Lasers on vapors of solids p. 795
14.2.4. Excimer lasers p. 795
14.2.5. Solid-state lasers p. 795
14.2.6. Dye lasers p. 796
14.2.7. Pumping of lasers p. 796
14.2.8. Measurement of laser parameters p. 797
14.2.9. Control of radiation parameters p. 798
14.2.9.1. Frequency control p. 798
14.2.9.2. Emission-power control p. 799
14.3. Light detectors p. 799
14.3.1. Thermal photodetectors, infrared detectors, radiometers p. 799
14.3.2. Detectors with spatial resolution p. 800
14.3.3. Measurement of photodetector parameters p. 800
14.3.4. Photon counting, photometers p. 801
14.4. Optical instruments p. 801
14.4.1. Instruments using lasers p. 802
14.4.2. Holography p. 802
14.4.3. Luminous-flux-control devices p. 802
14.4.4. Measurement of optical properties p. 803
14.4.5. Parts of optical instruments p. 803
14.4.6. Fiber optics p. 804
14.5. Optical spectral instruments p. 805
14.5.1. Interferometers p. 805
14.5.2. Spectrometers p. 805
14.5.3. Fourier spectrometers p. 806
14.5.4. Attachments to spectral instruments p. 806
15. ASTRONOMY AND COSMOS p. 806
15.1. Instruments for spacecrafts p. 807
16. ECOLOGY, MEDICINE, BIOLOGY p. 808
16.1. Radiation measurements p. 808
16.1.1. Dosimetry and radiation monitoring p. 808
16.1.2. Identification of radioactive elements p. 809
16.1.3. -ray
measurements p. 810
16.2. Monitoring of atmosphere p. 810
16.3. Geophysical measurements p. 811
16.3.1. Soil and rock measurements p. 811
16.3.2. Water p. 812
16.3.3. Geomagnetic measurements p. 812
16.4. Monitoring of technological processes p. 812
16.5. Instruments for medicine p. 813
16.5.1. Diagnostics p. 813
16.5.2. Therapy p. 814
16.6. Biological measurements p. 814
17. MAGNETIC DEVICES p. 815
17.1. Magnets and electromagnets p. 815
17.1.1. Superconducting magnets p. 816
17.1.2. Superconducting screens p. 816
17.2. Magnetometers p. 816
17.2.1. Resonance magnetometers p. 817
17.2.2. Superconducting magnetometers p. 817
17.2.3. Hall sensors and galvanomagnetic sensors p. 817
17.3. Magnetic measurements p. 818
17.3.1. Magnetooptics p. 819
18. MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS p. 819
18.1. Instruments for study of mechanical properties p. 819
18.2. Acoustic methods p. 820
18.3. Piezoelectric devices p. 821
18.4. High pressures p. 822
18.4.1. High-pressure chambers p. 822
18.4.2. Measurements at high pressures p. 823
18.5. Dilatometers, profilometers, displacement meters, velocimeters, and rotation meters p. 823
18.6. Displacement devices, supports, weights p. 824
19. STUDY OF MATERIALS p. 824
19.1. Measurement of kinetic coefficients, calorimetry p. 825
19.2. X-ray diffraction p. 826
19.2.1. X-ray apparatuses p. 826
19.2.2. X-ray sources p. 826
19.2.3. X-ray detectors p. 827
19.2.4. Formation of X-ray beams p. 828
19.2.5. Methods of X-ray analysis p. 828
19.2.6. Attachments for X-ray studies p. 829
19.3. Measurements of dielectric characteristics and fields in dielectrics p. 829
19.4. Superconductors p. 830
19.5. Semiconductors and semiconductor structures p. 830
19.5.1. Fabrication technology and quality control p. 830
19.5.2. Study of properties of semiconductors and semiconductor structures p. 831
19.5.3. Conduction measurements p. 832
19.5.4. Capacitance methods p. 832
19.5.5. Study of opto- and thermoelectric phenomena in semiconductors p. 832
19.5.6. Charge-coupled devices p. 833
20. INVESTIGATION OF SURFACES p. 833
20.1. Composition and state diagnostics p. 833
20.2. Work function, electron emission p. 834
20.3. Liquid on a surface p. 835
20.4. Scanning probe microscopy p. 835
21. THERMAL AND CRYOGENIC INSTRUMENTS p. 836
21.1. Thermal instruments p. 836
21.1.1. Calorimeters p. 837
21.1.2. Heaters p. 837
21.1.3. Temperature controllers and regulators p. 838
21.1.4. Thermoelectric instruments p. 838
21.1.5. Thermometry p. 838
21.2. Cryogenic techniques p. 839
21.2.1. Cryogenic devices p. 839
21.2.2. Measurements at low temperatures p. 840
21.2.3. Measurement of low temperatures p. 841
21.2.4. Cryostats p. 841
21.2.5. Monitoring of cryogenic-liquid level p. 841
21.2.6. Superconducting devices p. 842
21.2.7. Components of cryogenic devices p. 842
22. VACUUM TECHNIQUES p. 842
22.1. Vacuum devices p. 842
22.1.1. Vacuum spark gaps p. 843
22.2. Vacuum production p. 843
22.3. Vacuum gauges p. 843
22.4. Components of vacuum devices p. 843
23. LABORATORY TECHNIQUES p. 844
23.1. Techniques for working with gases p. 844
23.1.1. Gas purification and composition analysis p. 845
23.1.2. Measurement of pressure p. 846
23.1.3. Gas flow investigations p. 846
23.1.4. Flowmeters p. 847
23.1.5. Impulse gas flows p. 847
23.2. Techniques for working with liquids p. 847
23.2.1. Measurements of parameters p. 848
23.2.2. Liquid flow p. 848
23.3. Single crystals p. 849
23.4. Thin layers p. 849
23.4.1. Vacuum evaporation p. 849
23.4.2. Ion and plasma deposition p. 850
23.4.3. Thin-layer thickness control p. 851
23.4.4. Technological apparatuses for thin-film deposition p. 851
23.5. Finely dispersed systems p. 852
23.6. Foils, tips, holes p. 852
23.7. Technological facilities p. 853
23.8. Conductometry p. 853
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